In European history the so-called early-modern times are known as period of expansion. During the 16th and 17th century the world view and way of life of the Euorpeans was strongly influenced by Christian religion and institutions. The European expansion was therefore not only focussed on economic goals and profit factors. The motifs of the Portugese expansion were a mix of religious, economic, and political factors.[i] In Dutch expansion, the religious aspect was less strong as the trading organizations were foccussed on economic motives and the quest for profit. In the instructions of the central government (Staten Generaal), the Dutch provincial governments (Staten van Holland), before the the formation of the Verenigde Oost Indische Compagnie (VOC), including the first Octrooi VOC of 1602, not a single paragraph or article mentioned the task of spreading Protestantism; only the second Octrooi of 162[2]3 did.[ii]
The Dutch expansion across the world seas during the 17th and 18th century was connected to the European geographical constellation. The Dutch population depended partly on the sea for the supply of food. Within this limits of its geographical position, between other European trade zones (The Baltic Sea and the Mediterrian Sea), the Dutch joined the competition for trading routes to European harbours, mainly via the city of Amsterdam. The mentioned intensive trade activities contributed to a kind of openness toward other centers of trade. The same with Asian centres of trade, of which the Moluccas was a very important one.
The term ‘expansion’ is a synonym for the process of occupying parts or an entire foreign country. Expansion was more then territorial possession, military conquest, and trade monopolies. It also implied a cultural expansion, for instance expansion of education. With “expansion of Western education” is meant the expansion of eductaion or Western (Dutch) pedagogy in regions across the World seas, including in the Moluccas from the beginning of the 17th century untill the middle of the 20th century. After the bankrupcy of the VOC (31 December 1799) all assets and its connected administration in “Indonesia” were taken over by the Dutch-Indies government. Dutch colonial rule ended with the Japanese occupation during the Second World War where all Dutch schools were taken over or closed.
This paper first introduces Moluccan society. Why was this mixture of island societies open for Western cultural influence? It then foccusses on Western educational expansion by the Nederlandsch Zendelinggenootschap (NZG)[iii] and the Dutch-Indies government. The NZG worked within the framework of the Netherlands-Indies government and the Indische Kerk (a government-approved ‘state-church’) which was already established. Between these institutions often frictions or differencies occurred. How was the Ambonese community responding to the educational encounter?
TRADITIONAL MOLUCCAN SOCIETY
The Moluccan region measures 851.000 km2 and was populated by men ten thousand years ago.[iv] It is not easy to sketch the island societies of the original Moluccans, but it can be said that they were the result of a process of mutual influence between the peoples and their natural surroundings, particularly the sea. All these peoples had their own common origine, history, language, dialects, ‘adat-istiadat’ (traditional laws), and communal structure, but they also shared common characteristics such as a general structure of kinship, systems of traditional beliefs, traditional laws and so on.
Before the influence of Islam traders and preacher and the first Europeans during the 15th and 16th century, local communities had developed a rich set of traditional beliefs practiced within genealogical, patri-linear[v] communities that populating mountain and coastal areas. These social communities developed into political units or ‘negeri’.[vi]
As is the case with archaic communities in general, the Moluccan communities also had a view of life and traditonal laws which arranged their way of existence and daily life. Parents organized ‘non-formal’ education during daily life, passing over moral and cultural values, knowledge and skills towards younger generations. Other types of education were visible in the field of sacral (Kakehan[vii] and Pinamou[viii]) and secular (Saniri or village administration) life. Non-formal education also took place at special adat-events, such as ‘bikin panas pela’[ix] (reconfirmation of a special bond, between the inhabitants of two or more villages), marriage, ‘sasi’ (harvest regulations), and other events. It can be stated, that before the Moluccan people came into contact with Western education, they already had a system of traditional education that arranged children to become like their parents and respected members of their community. This education covered: (1) System of (religious, moral, social, economic) values; (2) educational framework (daily activities and several traditional events and ceremonies); (3) educational process (passing over of values, knowledge, and skills from parents to children); (4) educational performers (parents and professionals)
The above explanation shows that the Moluccan people had an open view towards issues which seemed to have no negative effect on one’s person or the community. This view contributed to their acceptance of values, knowledge and skills which were brought to them by the NZG and Dutch-Indies government; or even connected and considerd their typical possession. On the other hand, the amount of girls joining formal western education was limited, although there was a breakthrough initiated by the reverends Bär dan Holtz during the 19th century.[x] In other words, gender is a classic issue. The case of the Passo community on the island of Ambon demonstrates that Christian schools attracted more boys then girls, although the Christian community as such attracted more women then men. On Thursday, 18 October 1708, at midday after church service, reverend F. Valentyn, registered the inhabitants.[xi]
Mannen | Vrouwen | [‘tzamen] | |
Ledematen | 18 | 20 | 38 |
Gemeente Chistenen | 141 | 159 | 300 |
Kinderen in de school | 42 | 27 | 69 |
Dto buiten de school | 55 | 44 | 99 |
Doopkinderen | 5 | 4 | 9 |
[te zamen] | 261 | 254 | 515 |
Sumber: François Valentyn, “Oud- en Nieuw Oost-Indiën,” h. 120
The above table shows the total of inhabitants of Passo was 515. The church community, excluding school-going children, totals around 347 persons (67,3%), consisting of a majority of women (183 women) and 164 men (47,3%). The church community was dominated by women (52,7%).
THE ENCOUNTER OF MOLUCCAN COMMUNITY WITH THE WEST
As Passo demonstrates, in the 17th and 18th century, education was organized by the Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie. In the nineteenth century the Indische Kerk took over, until the independence of the Moluccan Church in 1935, when the Gereja Protestan Maluku (GPM) was established. In particular western presence in the nineteenth century initiated local processes of civilization[xii] through education (pedagogy) including curriculum, methode, schedules, facilities, management, and so on, which went together with developments in Europe.
The organization of education in regions across the world seas shows an image of education which seemed to be the same, but differed in some cases with that in the Netherlands. Writing on the Dutch situation, Boekholt and de Booy described how difficult it was to have schools during the past centuries. There were geographic factors, long walking distances, limited communication and few people. Nevertheless many had tha change to get a simple education.[xiii] Boone and Depaepe, stated that the study of pedagogy in a colonial setting has to take into account the differences of period, geographical space, and mental structure of a community. Next to this there are different relgious backgrounds, and social-economic interests of the colonizers. During the colonial period, an asymetrical relation became into being in which the pedagogy of the colonizer dominated the occupied community by a dia-metrical relation.[xiv]
When the VOC was given the task to devote attention to religious instruction and school bulding in overseas territories, it started to play a role in the field of education and catechesis.[xv] The so-called Ziekentrooster, next to their pastoral tasks, also gave catechism lessons. In the Dutch Republic the church played an important role in community education (volksonderwijs), and the reverends visited the schools. Church and schools under the VOC were financially depending on the Company.[xvi] Boone observed that education organized accros the world seas slightly differed from that which was organized in the Dutch Republic. Children learned to read and, from time to time, to write.
The language used in colonial in “Indonesia” was the lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago, Malay, but the knowledge, status (= penguasaan), and usage was limited. The focus in school was on the prayer (Our Father), the Ten Commandments, and the Confession of Faith. In church the bible in the high-Malay language was used, which caused difficulties for the common people to understand. Only after that, catechism and various spelboekjes. Only too little attention was paid to mathematics or counting numbers.[xvii]
Untill the 19th century the teachers were responsible for initial religious education, while the reverends only went on visitation or inspection tours. During these inspections they let the pupils recite catechism. Repetition of text was still important in the nineteenth century, show their inspection report for schools of by J.J. Verhoeff[xviii] to the Chairman of the Netherlands Missionary Organization in 1857. Each year schools on the island of Haruku were visited for inspection by a non-christian Assitant-Resident with limited knowledge, but demanded innovation and has tendention to be indifferent.
The missionary Roskott possibly had no oppurtunity to perform school-visitations here and in other places. Education here is limited, he complained, the methods used by teachers monotonous, always the same songs were sung, and also the same books were used. These conditions caused: firstly, the teachers had limited knowledge and views (limited sources) and they did not know how to develop these. Secondly, the teachers had limited authority, and they were not free to act as they wished concerning their work in school. For instance, when a child had to be punished, the teacher called for the villagehead to take care of the punishment. Sometimes a child was even taken by the school marinyo (herald) to the villagehead to be punished. A teacher was usually afraid for the Assistant-Resident as well. When the teacher and the villagehead were not harmony with each other, the schoolmaster was the first one to be criticized. Verhoeff trained a number of youngsters, who lived in his house, to become schoolmasters. There they learned the Dutch language, drawing, writing, and geography. Amongst them were two persons who were already trained to receive education at the institute.[xix]
During the 19th century its economic role and importance of the Moluccas decreased. Tradisional Moluccan spices were also produced elsewhere and colonial attention shifted towards other places. At the same time a more centralized administrative system emerged in the central Moluccas. The result was that also more attention was paid by the government to education.[xx] When the economy furthert declined, the educational system was modernized with the so-called Midras-school[xxi] and Ambonsche Burger School (ABS). The influence of the Protestant church on the educational system in the central Moluccas also continued in the nineteenth century, but the government involvement had increased.
At the turn of the twentieth century, several new Dutch schooltype were introduced, such as the Hollands Inlandsche School (HIS; 1906), the Ambonsche Burgerschool (ABS; 1869), the shakelschool, the Europese Lagere School (ELS), the Koopschool, and the Stovil (1885). The only Secondary schools during that time were the so-called MULO’s (Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs). Much of these schools were provided for the Ambon’s Eropean and Indo-european community, and can be considered as elite schools.
The Indonesian historian, R.Z. Leirissa, brought forward, as was also done by the Dutch historians H.J. de Graaf[xxii] and Kroeskamp, that the ABS formed a very interesting type of school to which need to be paid attention to. We need to see how far the educational institues of the NZG and ABS influenced the life of the Moluccan community. The question is in how far these schooltypes represented a means to developed a civilization process, in which Moluccans developed into semi-western intellectuals who later influences larger parts of Indonesian society.
THE INFLUENCE OF WESTERN EDUCATION ON MOLUCCAN COMMUNITY: 1800-1942
In order to see the influence of the two institutes in the field of education on the Moluccan community as integral part of Indonesia, it is interesting to look at the observations of Leirissa on the thesis of Max Weber on the division of education according authority, as also the observations by Boone and Depaepe on the asymetrical-diametrical relation.
It has to be admitted that the missionary not only attempted to christinize ‘heathens’, not only acted as evangelistic preacher, but that they also performed a role as community educator. Although paternalism of the community was still strong, the influence of the NZG reached to far away regions, where parents obligled their children to attend school. Missionary families were also used to adopt children and educate them in the western way to later become teachers. The adopted children gradually formed an important lint between the missionaries and Dutchman and Moluccans society. They also slowly created a new religious and bureaucratic elite which was important for the modernization of Moluccan society.
The government was also increasingly active in establishing schools. Reports from the archives indicate that they soon outnumbered the so-called zending-schools. The role of an Ambonese teacher was to work as a schoolteacher during the week, on Sunday the dorpsonderwijzer (village teacher) has the task as voorganger and voorzanger (preacher and psalm singer) during the regular services. But when his status became higher, the competition with the villageheads also increased, resulting in a number of conflicts between them two.
Reffering to the thesis of Weber, it can be concluded that the educational system of the zending belongs to the second type he describes, although it has its focus not on an elite; especially a powerfull elite. But the educational system of the ABS can be included to the third system, however it resulted in lowerclass clercks in colonial society; it can not be said to have develop the power of an elite.
The above mentioned two educational systems can be considered as ‘traditional’ in the sense of ‘a training ground for imitative adjustment to an established society’,[xxiii] nor can it be considered as the same educational system which emerged since the so-called Ethical Period which has the same characteristics as the modern educational system and which aims at “an introduction into an already dynamic society’.[xxiv]
Different from the midras educational system, the ABS was a ‘secular’ school; there were no lesson onreligion. Many alumni from the ABS worked as clercks in the governemental administration in and outside Ambon. Whereas midras was meant for all village communit groups, the ABS was meant especially and explicitly for the group of so-called burgers and children of villageheads. Next to the use of the Dutch language, its teachers were also not educated at the Kweekschool of the missionary Roskott, but Dutch. The books used were originated from the ELS.
Seen from the distribution of schools, government schools outnumber the zending schools, as becomes clear in the folowwing table.
List of NZG and government schools in 1842
No | Nama Guru | Nama Desa | Dikelola oleh | Wilayah | Ket. | |
Zending | Pemerintah | |||||
1. | E. Pattiasina | Kilang | û | Ambon | ||
2. | C. Haulussij | Ameth | û | Nusalaut | ||
3. | A. Pattiselano | omgaande mstr. | û | Ambon | 1838 ^ | |
4. | J. Risakotta | Soa Ema | ü | Ambon | ||
5. | P. Huka | Waaisamu | ü | Seram | ||
6. | J. Huka | Soa Ema | ü | Ambon | 1838 ^ | |
7. | J. Latuheru | Hutumuri | û | Ambon | ||
8. | J. Pattiasina | Booi | û | Saparua | ||
9. | P. Pastora | Kaibobo | û | Seram | ||
10. | F. Rikumahu | Piru | û | Seram | ||
11. | J. Bakarbessij | Liliboi | û | Saparua | ||
12. | A. Makatita | Naku | û | Ambon | ||
13. | S. Sapteno | Rutong | û | Ambon | ||
14. | J. Picaulij | Makariki | û | Seram | ||
15. | A. Picaulij | Kosongin | û | Banda | ||
16. | P. Ririhena | Galala | ü | Ambon | ||
17. | J. Noija | Lontor | û | Banda | ||
18. | S. Hukum | Waaij | û | Ambon | ||
19. | L. Maitimu | Sooija | û | Ambon | ||
20. | J. Anakotta | Amahei | û | Seram | ||
21. | S. Vloriesz | Passo | û | Ambon | ||
22. | L. Reawaru | In het Weeshuis | Diakoni fonds | Ambon | ||
23. | J. Soumokil | Manipa | û | Manipa | ||
Bron: ARvdZ 34/5, “Verslag van het Institut van het NZG”, d.d. Ambon, 9 Februari 1843.
The table above shows that the schools organized by the zending were found in Soa Ema, Waisamu, and Galala village, because these places were populated by the group of burgers. However, during the following century, as is observed by Leirissa on the basis of General Education Reports, there was an increasing number of schools which practized the Malay language, school that were different from the schools organized by the zending and government. The following observations can be made:
1. The number of schools in the Moluccas increased less compared with other regions, although it is still reasonable in relation to the percentage of the number of pupils and the total number of inhabitants.
2. Government schools seems to have be concentrated in regions which were already ‘opened’ by the zending and its education during the 19th century, while the church/zending/mission schools were concentrated more and more areas which had not yet received educational facilities.
3. Secondary education seems less compared to the number of pupils at primary schools, educational development at the secondary level did not go higher then the Mulo.[xxv]
On the one hand, the schools of the zending had sufficient result in spreading the Malay language, on the other hand, government supported education led to further modernization of society. The alumni of the ABS who were “expanded”, passing geographical borders, made up a new elite and joined several professions. Johanes Leimena is one example of such a person. He received his education at the ABS till the second class in Ambon Town.[xxvi] Next to him there were also many who protected the interests of the Moluccan people in the field of social-economic progress and prosperity. They even joined the war as part of Indonesian community. What is for sure, is that one characteristic of persons who received Dutch education, was the desire to develop themselves. This orientation became most clear by the birth of organizations such as the Sarekat Ambon and others. As such western education in the end helped self-consciousness and the desire for independence or to support the national cause.
[i] C.R. Boxer concludes the general opinion among the modern Portugese historians about four aspects of Portugese expansion: (i). crusading zeal, (ii) desire for Guinea gold, (iii) the quest for Prester John, and (iv) the search for spices. C.R. Boxer. Four Centuries of Portuguese Expansion, 1415-1825; A Succinct Survey. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1961, p. 6. See: C.P.F. Luhulima. “Motif-motif Ekspansi Nederland dalam Abad Ke-Enambelas”, dalam: Departemen P dan K Propinsi Maluku. Hasil-hasil dan Materi Seminar Sejarah Maluku I. Ambon: Panitia Seminar Sejarah Maluku I Perwakilan Dep. P dan K Propinsi Maluku, 5 s/d 10 Oktober 1972), p. 83, 115.
[ii] C.P.F. Luhulima. Motif-motif Ekspansi Nederland Dalam Abad Keenambelas. Djakarta-Indonesia: Lembaga Research Kebudajaan Nasional, 1971, p. 9.
[iii] See: Th. Van den End, (et al.). Twee eeuwen Nederlandse Zending 1797-17997; Twaalf opstellen. Zoetermeer: Boekencentrum, 1997.
[iv] Badan Pusat Statistik Propinsi Maluku. Maluku Dalam Angka Moluccas in Figures 1997. Ambon: Sama Jaya, 1998, p. 14.
[v] According to Cooley, in Ceram, perhaps also in Ambon-Lease, before the coming of foreign influences, relationship system was based on matrilineal. This patron was changed up to now (patrilineal). That changes was possible by the influence of Islam, also Christian and the western culture. R.Z. Leirissa, G.A. Ohorella, Djuariah Latuconsina. Sejarah Kebudayaan Maluku. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI, 1999, p. 32. Quoted from Frank Cooley. Mimbar dan Takhta. Jakarta: Penerbit Sinar Harapan, 1971, p. 121.
[vi] Gereja Protestan Maluku. “Gereja Protestan Maluku dalam Lintasan Sejarah” dalam: GPM, Oikumene dan Buah-buah Injil di Bumi 1000 Pulau. Ambon: Panitia Penyelenggara Sidang Raya X DGI Ambon, 1984, p. 1. That political units are called “Negeri” (village) that leaded by a “king” with the title “Upu Latu”, “Upu Patih” or “orang kaya”. In the South-East of Moluccas that political unit is leaded by “Rat” (king), “orang kaya”, “Kepala Soa” atau “Kepala Kampung”. Cf. ANRI Amb. 1527; ANRI Amb. 1541; ANRI Amb. 1596, &tc.
[vii] See: J.P. Duyvendak. Het Kakean-Genootschap Van Seran. Dissertation. Almelo: N.V. W. Hilarius Wzn., 1926.
[ix] About “Pela”, see Dieter Bartels. Guarding The Invisible Mountain Intervillage Alliances Religious Syncritism and Ethnic Identity among Ambonese Christians and Moslems in the Moluccas. USA Cornell University, 1977.
[x] See Dagverhaal Luijke, Berigten 1834, p. 56. See also: B.N.J. Roskott to Pengurus Besar NZG, Ambon, 28 April 1845, AR vd Z. 34/5.
[xi] François Valentyn. Oud- en Nieuw Oost-Indiën, Dordrecht, 1724-1726), deel III 1e stuk, h. 120// h.130; Fol. 130 (No. 1) in: Korte Staat Der Kerken, en Schoolen, op de Overkust, en ‘t Gebergte van Leytimor.
[xii] A.Th. Boone. Bekering en Beschaving; De agogische activiteiten van het Nederlandsch Zendelinggenootschap in Oost-Java (1840-1865), Zoetermeer: Uitgeverij Boekencentrum, 1997.
[xiii] P. Boekholt & E.P. de Booy, Geschiedenis van de School in Nederland vanaf de middeleeuwen tot aan de huidige tijd, (Assen/Maastricht: Van Gorcum, 1987).
[xiv] A.Th. Boone & M. Depaepe “Over het Wezen en de Betekenis van de Koloniaal-Pedagogische Traditie in België en Nederland” in: A.TH. Boone & M. Depaepe. Pedagogische Tijdschrift Themanummer Onderwijzen en opvoeden in koloniale en missionaire contexten: Nederlands-Belgische verkenningen van een tot op heden nawerkend verleden, 21e Jaargang Maart/April 1996., p. 81-85.
[xv] A.Th. Boone, “Onderwijs en Opvoeding in de Nederlandse Koloniën 1595-1975” in: A.TH. Boone & M. Depaepe. Pedagogische Tijdschrift Themanummer Onderwijzen en opvoeden in koloniale en missionaire contexten: Nederlands-Belgische verkenningen van een tot op heden nawerkend verleden, 21e Jaargang Maart/April 1996. p. 67-99. See: L.J. Joosse. Scoone dingen sijn swaere dingen; Een onderzoek naar de motieven en activiteiten in de Nederlanden tot verbereiding van de gereformeerde religie gedurende de eerste helft van de zeventiende eeuw, Leiden: J.J. Groen, 1992, p. 573-581.
[xvi] G.M.J.M. Koolen, Een seer bequame middel. Onderwijs en kerk onder de 17e eeuwse VOC. Kampen: KOK, 1993. p. 231.
[xvii] G.J. Knaap. Kruinagelen en christenen.- De Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie en de bevolking van Ambon 1656-1696. Leiden: KITLV Uitgeverij, 1987, p. 91-94, 96.
[xviii] HB NZG, Haruku, 4 Juni 1857; ARvdZ 29/4; ARvdZ 18/5.
[xix] HB NZG, Haruku, 4 Juni 1857; ARvdZ 29/4.
[xx] R.Z. Leirissa. Midras Dan Ambonsche Burger School - Dua Bentuk Sekolah yang Bertolak Belakang di Maluku Tengah Dalam Masa Penjajahan, Seminar Sejarah Lokal di Medan tanggal 23-29 September 1984. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional, Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Sejarah Nasional, 1994, p. 1. I.J. Brugmans. Geschiedenis van het Onderwijs in Nederlandsch Indië. Groningen-Batavia: J. B. Wolters’ Uitgevers-Maatschappij, N.V., 1938.
[xxi] Leirissa, op.cit., p. 1-2.
[xxii] H.J. de Graaf. De Geschiedenis van Ambon en de Zuid-Molukken. Franeker: Uitgeverij T. Wever B.V., p. 250-254.
[xxiii] Leirissa, “Midras”, p. 3. See also: A.H. Halsey, “Educational organizations”, in: International Encycloppedie of Social Sciences, chapt. 3-4.
[xxiv] Ibid.
[xxv] Leirissa, op.cit., p. 18-21.
[xxvi] Frans Hitipeuw. Dr. Johannes Leimena; Karya dan Pengabdiannya. Jakarta: Departement Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Direktorat Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional, Proyek Inventarisasi dan Dokumentasi Sejarah Nasional, 1986, p. 23, 24.
